CHAPTER FOUR
Agreement of Subject and Verb
When a verb is singular, its subject must be singular; when a verb is plural, its subject must be plural. When a subject is in the first, second, or third person, the verb must match it. This matching in number and person of subjects and verbs is called agreement.
In the present tense, the presence of the -s suffix at the end of a subject or verb usually indicates a plural subject or a singular verb.
Our dog sleeps in the basement.
Third person singular subject, dog; third person singular verb, sleeps.
Our dogs sleep in the basement.
Third person plural subject, dogs; third person plural verb, sleep.
The suffix -s (or -es) on a noun subject generally means that the subject is plural. The absence of the suffix -s (or -es) on a noun subject generally means that the subject is singular.
The suffix -s (or -es) on a present-tense verb usually tells you that the verb is singular. The absence of the suffix -s (or -es) on a verb usually tells you that the verb is plural.
Singular noun subjects, which usually do not end in -s, accompany singular verbs, which usually do end in -s.
Agreement: Singular Noun Subject; Singular Verb, Third Person, Present Tense
Our dog sleeps.
Singular subject, no -s ending; singular verb, -s ending
An orchid costs too much.
The house needs paint.
The day goes by quickly.
The absence of the suffix -s (or -es) after “orchid,” “house,” and “day” shows that all these noun subjects are singular. The suffix -s on “costs” and “needs” and the suffix -es on “goes” show that all these verbs in the third person are singular.
Plural noun subjects, which usually do end in -s (or -es), accompany plural verbs, which usually do not end in -s.
Agreement: Plural Noun Subject; Plural Verb, Third Person, Present Tense
Dogs sleep.
Plural subject, -s ending; plural verb, no -s ending
Orchids cost too much.
The houses need paint.
The days go quickly.
The -s suffix on “orchids,” “houses,” and “days” shows that these subjects are all plural. The absence of the suffix -s (or -es) on the verbs shows that they are all plural, too.
a Use singular verbs with singular noun subjects that end in -s.
The letter -s at the end of a word is not always a suffix denoting the plural form. Some singular nouns end in -s, and they, too, must match singular verb forms.
Glass breaks.
Singular subject ending in -s; singular verb ending in -s
Moss grows.
Fungus spreads.
b Use plural verbs with plural noun subjects that do not have an -s ending.
Some nouns do not use the suffix -s for the plural form. But no matter what the form is, a plural subject requires a plural verb.
Children giggle.
Plural subject without an -s ending; plural verb
Men guffaw.
Alumni contribute.
c Use singular verbs for the singular pronoun subjects “he,” “she,” and “it.”
The third person singular pronouns he, she, and it, like the nouns they replace, require singular verbs.
She raises tomatoes.
Singular pronoun in the third person; singular verb, -s ending
He keeps the cat away.
It eats all the seedlings.
d The pronouns “I” and “you” always take present tense forms that look plural, except for forms of “to be.”
Even though the pronoun I is singular, it always takes the present tense without a singular -s ending.
I applaud.
I dream.
I write.
I cry.
The pronoun you functions as both a singular and a plural. Only the verb form without the singular -s works correctly with you, whether you is singular or plural.
You live.
You laugh.
You love.
In each case, “you” may refer to just one person or to several people. However, the verb form remains the same for singular or plural, and this verb form is without the suffix -s.
I am.
You are.
She is.
e Use plural verbs for plural pronoun subjects.
They applaud.
Plural pronoun; plural verb, no -s ending
They leap to their feet.
They shout, “Bravo!”
We sneer at their bad taste.
Exercise 1. In the sentences below, if the subjects and verbs are singular, make them plural; if they are plural, make them singular. You may need to change other words as well. Follow the example.
Example:
A field mouse takes cover in the house when the temperature drops.
Field mice take cover in the house when the temperatures drop.
1. The horses gallop swiftly over the plains.
2. A city provides many interesting things for people to do.
3. Cigarette smokers run a high risk of getting certain diseases.
4. I drive her to class on Mondays, but on Thursdays she insists on taking the bus.
5. Terror stalks some neighborhoods; people face the possibility of violence every day.
6. Warm desert winds carry sand along the streets of Yuma and sting the eyes of people on the burning sidewalks.
7. He urges a balanced budget, although they want the government to pay for large social programs.
8. A direct-drive turntable costs more than a belt-drive, but my friends swear that belt-drives are just as good.
Exercise 2. On your paper, write the verb form in each sentence that agrees in number with the subject of the sentence. Label each verb or verb phrase Singular or Plural.
SAMPLE An announcement about an electric motor developed by a group of California scientists (has been, have been) made.
ANSWER has been—Singular
1. Researchers at the University of California at Berkeley (have constructed, has constructed) an electric motor the width of a human hair.
2. Amazingly, the rotor in the device (measure, measures) only sixty microns; a human hair is seventy to one hundred microns thick.
3. Scientists here and at other research centers (has, have) also created gears with teeth the size of blood cells.
4. These devices, small and light enough to be inhaled, (has been, have been) classified as machines because of their moving parts.
5. At least a hundred times larger than these (is, are) the next smallest devices, according to researchers at the University of California.
6. One possible application that scientists envision for the future (includes, include) scissors or perhaps electric buzz saws for delicate microsurgery.
7. There (is, are) other possibilities too; one machine that scientists dream about (travels, travel) through arteries.
8. The possibility of developing armies of “gnat robots” (are, is) something that engineers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (are talking, is talking) about.
9. Still experimental (is, are) the actual construction of such tiny moving parts.
10. The actual uses for a new technology always (remains, remain) speculative for a while, but in the future (lies, lie) a vast array of amazing new machines.
f Use a plural verb when “and” joins more than one subject.
Pepper and garlic flavor the soup.
The word “and” joins two singular subjects, giving the sentence a plural subject; plural verb, no -s ending.
Greed and arrogance disgust most people.
Queenie and Clarence work on cars.
Frost and Roethke are her favorite poets.
The dog, the monkey, the children, and the tent were in the car.
When subjects joined by “and” suggest a single idea, they may take a singular verb, but such uses are rare.
The tenor and star of the show is out with the flu.
Two subject are joined by “and,” but both nouns refer to the same person, and so the whole subject is grammatically singular; singular verb.
Avocado and bean sprouts is my favorite sandwich.
The winner and new champion was in the shower.
Honest criticism and sensitive appreciation is directed not upon the poet but upon the poetry.
T. S. Eliot
Eliot thought that “Honest criticism and sensitive appreciation” made one entity, that they were merely parts of the same approach to poetry, so he used the singular verb “is” in this sentence. But his usage here illustrates a danger, since to most people it is confusing. Most authorities would have been pleased if he had chosen to write “Honest criticism and sensitive appreciation are directed not upon the poet but upon the poetry.”
The words “each” and “every” preceding singular subjects that are joined by “and” require a singular verb for the whole subject, even though the subject may sound plural.
In the Nittany Mountains, each dawn and dusk fills the sky with soft, pink light.
Compound subject, preceded by each; singular verb
When every window and every door shuts out drafts, your furnace will burn less oil.
In the rare instances when “each” follows subjects joined by “and,” you may choose either a singular or a plural verb, whichever sounds better to you.
In the Nittany Mountains, dawn and dusk each fill (or fills) the sky with soft, pink light.
g For the verb “to be,” observe the rules of agreement in both the present and past tense.
In the present tense, the various forms of “to be” are irregular and require selective use with subjects.
am: Use with the pronoun “I.”
When I am tired, I cannot think.
is: Use with all singular noun subjects and with singular pronoun subjects other than “I” and “you.”
The door is rattling.
Martha is late again.
He is serving tables.
It is dawn, and still she is studying.
are: Use with plural noun subjects, with plural pronoun subjects, and with the pronoun “you,” whether it is singular or plural.
The waves are racing to the shore.
They are gardening; we are resting.
When you are finished, you can go.
As you have seen, rules of agreement pertain to verbs in the present tense. In the simple past tense both singular and plural verbs use the same form for all subjects—except for the verb “to be,” which has two past tense forms, “was” and “were.” “Was” is singular, and “were” is plural.
was: Use with all singular noun subjects and with all singular pronoun subjects other than “you.”
The ball was high.
He was merely pink, but I was lobster-red.
were: Use with all plural noun subjects, with plural pronoun subjects, and with the pronoun “you,” whether it is singular or plural.
As you were reading, the children were planning their little surprise.
The refugees were standing patiently in line.
The rules of agreement also pertain to the present perfect tense. In the present perfect tense, the helping verb “has” is singular, and the helping verb “have” may be either singular or plural.
I have biked across the country twice.
The single subject “I” takes the helping verb “have” to form the present perfect tense of the verb “bike.”
He has often complained about his back.
“He,” a singular pronoun, takes the singular helping verb “has” in the present perfect tense.
They have been out all night.
“They” is a plural pronoun and takes the plural form “have” to form the present perfect tense of the verb “to be.”
h Take care to make your verbs and subjects agree when misleading words or phrases come between them.
Large amounts of money go to the national defense.
Although a singular noun, money, stands close to the verb “go,” the true subject of the verb is the plural noun “amounts,” and that subject requires a plural verb. The verb “go” is plural because its subject, amounts, is plural. The singular noun “money” is the object of the preposition “of” and is not the subject of the sentence.
One error in a column of figures throws computations off by thousands.
Although it stands right before the verb “throws,” the plural noun “figures” is the object of the preposition “of.” The subject, error, is singular; it requires a singular verb.
Words such as in addition to, as well as, along with, plus, including, and together with do not affect the number of the subject. They usually serve as prepositions introducing the object of a preposition, which can never be the subject of a verb.
A baseball game between the Philadelphia Athletics and the St. Louis Browns, along with my recollections of the bright colors of the grass and the uniforms and the excitement of the crowd, makes one of my happiest childhood memories.
The singular subject, game, takes a singular verb, makes, and the combination of subject and verb is not affected by the extended prepositional phrase “along with my recollections of the bright colors of the grass and the uniforms and the excitement of the crowd.”
Although such a sentence may be grammatically correct, it may still be awkward, and you should revise awkward sentences whether they are grammatically correct or not.
One of my happiest childhood memories is a baseball game between the Philadelphia Athletics and the St. Louis Browns. I can still see the bright colors of the grass and the uniforms, and I can still feel the excitement of the crowd.
The Marx Brothers, including Groucho, still make audiences laugh in A Night at the Opera, filmed half a century ago.
The plural subject, Marx Brothers, requires a plural verb, make; the phrase “including Groucho” does not influence the number of the verb.
i When words such as or, either .... or, and neither .... nor connect singular subjects, use singular verbs.
A simple fungus infection or a rash between the toes is often extremely painful.
Either running or swimming improves the heart’s performance significantly.
When a subject with “or” or “nor” contains both a singular and a plural part, the verb agrees with the nearest part of the subject.
Either fine art or old coins make a good hedge against inflation.
The verb “make” is plural because its closest subject, coins, is plural.
Neither Jack Miller nor his friends the Stanleys like beer.
The verb “like” is plural because it follows the plural noun “Stanleys.”
Either old coins or fine art makes a good hedge against inflation.
In this example, the verb “makes” is singular because it follows the singular noun “art.”
Neither the Stanleys nor their friend Jack Miller likes beer.
Combined singular and plural subjects often sound awkward, and you should consider revising them to make compound subjects that may be expressed easily by a plural verb.
Awkward: Either the lilacs or the magnolia tree is responsible for the sweet smell that now hangs on the night air.
Improved: Either the lilacs or the magnolia blossoms are responsible for the sweet smell that now hangs on the night air.
Improved: Old coins and fine art make a good hedge against inflation.
Improved: Both the Stanleys and their friend Jack Miller dislike beer.
j With singular indefinite pronouns such as anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, none, no one, and one, use singular verbs; the more ambiguous indefinite pronouns such as all, any, more, most, and some, take singular or plural verbs, depending on their meaning in a particular sentence.
Everyone is on strike.
Nobody likes a losing team.
Use singular verbs with singular indefinite pronouns even when a prepositional phrase with a plural noun comes between the pronoun subject and the verb.
Everyone in all the departments is on strike.
Nobody among ardent fans likes a losing team.
In both examples, the presence of a plural noun as the object of a preposition between the subject and the verb has no influence on the choice of the verb; “everyone” and “nobody” are singular pronoun subjects; they take singular verbs.
Some speakers sometimes slip into using verbs that agree with nearby nouns instead of indefinite pronoun subjects. The error may not be noticed in speaking, but it may disrupt a reader’s concentration if it turns up in writing.
Hurried Speech: One of the shops close at five o’clock.
Written: One of the shops closes at five o’clock.
The more ambiguous indefinite pronouns such as all, any, more, most, and some take singular or plural verbs depending on whether their meaning is singular or plural in a particular sentence.
After the blizzard, workers made a huge pile of snow in the park. Is any of the snow left?
The pile of snow is singular; “any,” in referring to it, takes a singular verb.
Frank Sinatra once had thousands of young admirers who fainted when he sang. Are any of them still around?
The noun “admirers” is plural; “any,” in referring to them, is also plural and takes a plural verb.
She listens carefully to the children because some of them have mature ideas.
“Children” is plural; “some,” a pronoun referring to the plural pronoun “them,” takes a plural verb, “have.”
He made a cake last night; some of it is still on the table.
“Cake” is singular; “some,” referring to it, is singular, too, and takes the singular verb “is.”
The pronoun “none” has been a subject of much debate among writers. Strict grammarians point out that “none” means “no one” and should always take a singular verb:
None of my students is here yet.
But many writers make the same distinction with “none” that they make with “any.” When “none” refers to a plural noun, some writers use a plural verb. When “none” refers to a singular noun, these writers use a singular verb.
None of my students are here yet.
Since “none” refers to the plural “students,” the verb “are” is plural.
I read his novel and discovered that none of it was any good.
Since “none” refers to the singular “novel,” it takes the singular verb “was.”
k Make verbs agree with their subjects when you invert the normal sentence order.
Below the waves lurks a great white shark.
“Shark” is the subject of the sentence, although it comes after the verb “lurks.” As the object of the preposition “below” the noun “waves” does not influence the verb.
Beside the brook grow tulips in a profusion of color.
l When verb follow “there” or “here” at the beginning of a sentence, make sure that the subject that follows the verb agrees with it.
Here lie the ruins of a once-thriving civilization.
The subject “ruins” is plural; its verb, lie, is also plural.
There are five broken pencils on the desk.
There is a heavy glass door at the end of the corridor.
m When the relative pronouns who, that, and which appear as subjects, use a verb that agrees with the antecedent.
Readers learn about new products from advertisements that sometimes mislead by making fantastic claims.
The antecedent of “that” is “advertisements,” a plural noun; the verb “mislead” must also be plural.
Chow Leung is one of those physicians who work compulsively.
The antecedent for “who” is the plural noun “physicians”; “who” is plural and takes a plural verb, work. Even though the word “one” is singular, it does not influence agreement here.
The word “only” placed before “one” can make a verb singular, even when the relative pronoun that later refers to it seems to have a plural antecedent.
The Glass Menagerie is the only one of Tennessee Williams’s plays that experiments with slide photography.
The word “only” establishes a singular context in the sentence, and because of that singular context, “that” refers to “one,” not to “plays.” No play by Tennessee Williams other than this one experiments with slide photography.
n Use linking verbs that agree with their subjects, not with complements of the subjects.
Scholarship and study are her passion.
The plural subject, scholarship and study, takes a plural verb, are. The complement, her passion, is singular, but it does not affect the verb.
Her passion is scholarship and study.
The singular subject, passion, takes a singular verb, is. The verb is unaffected by the plural complement, scholarship and study.
If such sentences sound awkward, you can revise them to make them smoother.
Her passions are scholarship and study.
She loves scholarship and study.
o Use singular verbs with most collective nouns that stand for or suggest a unit.
Such nouns have singular forms, although they have plural meanings. Words such as army, audience, class, committee, majority, minority, team, and so on, take singular verbs because the words stand for a single body acting as a unit.
This class meets too early.
An army needs good leadership and a good cause.
The parking committee issues permits to students.
The football team travels to East Lansing tomorrow.
Sometimes writers may emphasize the individual actions of separate members over the unity of a group by using a plural verb.
A number of the members were opposed to the majority report.
The singular noun “number” here takes a plural verb, were.
However, many writers would revise such a sentence to make it sound less awkward.
Some of the members were opposed to the majority report.
The pronoun “some” becomes plural because it refers to the plural noun “members” and takes the plural verb “were.”
A number of the members opposed to the majority report.
The singular “number” now takes the verb “opposed” in the simple past tense. Using the simple past is a convenient way to avoid awkwardness in making subjects and verbs agree, since the simple past is the same for both singular and plural.
Some plural nouns that specify quantities require singular verbs because the nouns suggest a single unit.
Ten minutes is not enough time to see the Acropolis.
A hundred dollars is not much to pay for a bike these days.
In these examples, a plural noun is taken as a single unit and takes a singular verb.
p Use singular verbs for those noun subjects that appear plural in form but are singular in meaning.
Gulliver’s Travels is both a fantastic narrative and a serious satire on the human condition.
Although plural in form (shown by the -s ending on the word “Travels”), the title takes a singular verb, since the subject is the title of a single book.
Words like mathematics, politics, athletics, ethics, kudos, pediatrics, and many others are plural in form but nearly always take a singular verb.
Politics is both a science and an art.
Mathematics is difficult for many people.
In both examples, the noun subject may be plural in form, but the meaning of each is singular. Hence a singular verb is required.
Exercise 3. Circle the appropriate form of the verb in each sentence below.
1. There (is, are) the primaries and the convention to endure before a candidate in either party (claim, claims) victory.
2. C.P. Snow’s book The Two Cultures (was, were) a controversial statement on how little scientists and humanists understand each other.
3. Ten dollars (is, are) too much to pay for lunch.
4. Either the physician or the nurse (was, were) checking the chart.
5. Although she (has, have) a set of antique dueling pistols that (earn, earns) praise for beauty, neither she nor her father (has, have) ever fired a shot.
6. Here (is, are) the pianist and the flautist surrounded by a cheering orchestra that (love, loves) their outrageous mistakes.
7. Black bean soup topped with chopped onions (makes, make) a nourishing lunch, but some people (hate, hates) it.
8. Along the river bank (was, were) a child and a dog playing in the grass and sometimes in the dangerous water.
9. One of the supervisors who (was, were) not promoted felt that there (were, was) too few opportunities for advancement in the office where all the bosses (was, were) men; therefore, she, as well as her best friend, (is, are) looking for another job.
10. None of the jurors (seem, seems) prejudiced against the defendant.
Exercise 4. On your paper, write the subject of each of the following sentences. Then write the verb form on parentheses that agrees with the subject. Finally, state whether the subject and the verb are singular or plural.
SAMPLE Lyndon Johnson and John Kennedy (was, were) members of the Democratic Party.
ANSWER Lyndon Johnson and John Kennedy—were—plural
1. Both partisans and foes (has, have) problems assessing the career of Lyndon Baines Johnson, for he was a complicated man.
2. Johnson lived for politics; in fact, most of his adult life (was, were) spent in politics.
3. In 1948 this popular and capable senator and loyal party member (were, was) chosen as majority leader of the Senate, the youngest ever selected majority leader by either party.
4. When hardly anyone else (was, were) thinking about space exploration, Johnson sponsored the law that established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA); soon everyone (was, were) thinking about space.
5. The first civil rights bill in more than eighty years (was, were) passed thanks to the efforts of Lyndon Johnson.
6. Johnson announced his candidacy for the presidency a week before the 1960 nominating convention, but most of the votes on the first ballot (was, were) cast in favor of Senator John F. Kennedy.
7. For his vice-presidential nominee, Kennedy chose Johnson who, he said, “(has, have) demonstrated on many occasions his brilliant qualifications for the leadership we require today.”
8. One hour and thirty-nine minutes after President Kennedy was assassinated, both Mrs. Johnson and Mrs. Kennedy (was, were) at Johnson’s side when he took the oath of office aboard the presidential jet at Love Field, near Dallas.
9. Today much of the federal budget (goes, go) to help citizens participating in programs begun by Lyndon Johnson.
10. Johnson’s heart and soul (was, were) invested in creating what he called the “Great Society.”
Exercise 5. On your paper, write the verb that correctly completes each sentence.
SAMPLE The New York Times (has, have) printed many stories about Harry S. Truman.
ANSWER has
1. When Harry S. Truman became President upon the death of President Franklin Roosevelt, the United States (was, were) still at war.
2. The United Nations (was, were) still in the process of being organized.
3. An estimated one billion dollars (was, were) saved as a result of Truman’s investigations of waste and inefficiency in defense spending.
4. Eight years (is, are) a long time to be President, and Truman’s years in office (was, were) eventful ones.
5. Only four weeks of his term (was, were) gone when Germany surrendered, and the war in Europe was over.
6. After the war, millions of dollars (was, were) approved by Congress to help to rebuild Europe through the Marshall Plan.
7. Headlines, a television series, (was, were) in agreement with most political analysts when it declared that Truman would lose the 1948 election.
8. The London Times (was, were) not alone in predicting that the Republican candidate, New York governor Thomas E. Dewey, would be a sure winner.
9. (Was, Were) the Organization of American States (OAS) in existence during Truman’s term of office?
10. Truman’s Year of Decision, which he wrote after leaving office on January 19, 1953, (discuss, discusses) his presidency and (is, are) a valuable resource fro historians.
Exercise 6. On your paper, write the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject.
SAMPLE The four World War II allies (was, were) the force that controlled Berlin.
ANSWER were
1. The Truman Doctrine (is, are) one of Harry Truman’s most important legacies.
2. Isolationism and avoidance of worldwide responsibility (was, were) an old United States policy that the Truman Doctrine helped to change.
3. After World War II, the USSR and its neighboring states (were, was) a force to be reckoned with.
4. According to the allied peace terms, Berlin (was, were) now two cities controlled by the United States, Britain, France, and the USSR.
5. The Berlin Air Lift (was, were) supplies for over two million people; these supplies were flown to the German capital on Truman’s orders.
6. Truman was interested in Korea, whose fate (was, were) conflict and war between forces in the north and forces in the south.
7. The Security Council of the United Nations decided that the North Koreans (was, were) the aggressor and called on UN members to aid South Korea.
8. Two days later President Truman acted upon his belief that American soldiers (was, were) the solution and ordered American military forces into action.
9. Military, naval, and medical units (was, were) the response of other member nations of the UN.
10. The UN forces (was, were) the responsibility of General Douglas MacArthur.
Exercise 7. On your paper, write the verb form in parentheses that agrees with the subject. Then identify the subject and its antecedent.
SAMPLE Dwight D. Eisenhower, who (was, were) one of the most popular men in the country, became President in 1953.
ANSWER was—who—Dwight D. Eisenhower
1. In 1948 Eisenhower had said that lifetime professional soldiers were people who (was, were) not good choices for political office.
2. By 1952, however, Republicans, who (was, were) urging him to run for President, finally prevailed.
3. That successful election was one of those that (shows, show) how personal popularity can win elections.
4. The new President, who (was, were) used to delegating authority in the army, directed that information and opinions come to him only “through channels.”
5. At Eisenhower’s urging, Congress, which at that time (was, were) controlled by the Republicans, extended the Social Security Act to ten million more people and increased its benefits.
6. He pushed Congress to enact a program of health insurance, which (was, were) to be partially underwritten by the federal government, but he could not get the measure passed.
7. His first order of business was one of those tasks that (is, are) often promised in campaigns but rarely fulfilled: balancing the budget.
8. By 1956 the federal budget, which (is, are) often a battleground for Congress and the President, showed its first surplus in eight years.
9. The accomplishment of building the St. Lawrence Seaway with Canada was one of those projects that (was, were) attempted earlier but (was, were) not successful until the Eisenhower administration.
10. During Eisenhower’s first term, the United States economy, which (tends, tend) to rise and fall in cycles, reached new peaks of prosperity.
Exercise 8. On your paper, rewrite each sentence, correcting all errors in subject-verb agreement by changing the form of the verb. If a sentence contains no errors, write Correct on your paper.
SAMPLE Many a challenge were faced by the United States during the Eisenhower years.
ANSWER Many a challenge was faced by the United States during the Eisenhower years.
1. Two major attempts to reduce the President’s power was made during Eisenhower’s first term.
2. The Bricker amendment, named after Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio, was designed to limit the President’s treaty-making powers.
3. There was many senators in favor of the amendment, but in the end it failed by a single-vote margin.
4. One of the nation’s biggest problems during the Eisenhower years were the wild accusations of Senator Joseph R. McCarthy.
5. McCarthy accused many patriotic people of being communists, and many a senator were afraid to challenge him.
6. McCarthy’s attack against libraries was one of those maneuvers that were frightening to people who defend free speech.
7. Not all of the news during the Eisenhower years is bad; with the help of leaders in Congress, for example, the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, guaranteeing blacks the right to vote, was passed.
8. The Cold War Years are one of those titles that sounds right for a book about this era.
9. Launching of the first Sputnik in 1957 and putting the first man in space were an immediate psychological victory for the Soviets and spurred North American moves into space.
10. Near the end of Eisenhower’s second term, many citizens was in favor of more social programs. Such programs were the loser, people believed, because so much money were going into defense.
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