CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Critical Thinking
The second half of the twentieth century may someday be remembered as the age of information. The proliferation of communications technology has multiplied the volume of facts, ideas, and opinions that flood out lives every day. This deluge of information can be overwhelming and even confusing. Some people ignore what they read and hear while others misinterpret or misunderstand it.
Critical thinking is a way for you to use information to your advantage—at home, at school, and at work. In this chapter, you will learn how to classify information and how to draw conclusions. Skill in classifying will help you to identify main ideas; to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant details; to understand cause and effect; and to analyze analogies. As you study ways to draw conclusions, you will practice some strategies for analyzing and interpreting information. You will discover how important these strategies are for making decisions, solving problems, and understanding the complexities of the world that you live in.
How to Classify Information
Classifying, or sorting related items into groups, is one of the most basic thinking skills. For example, you classify when you sort grocery coupons by type or product or when you sort your note cards chronologically for a history paper. The following examples suggest how you might classify several groups of information.
AQUATIC MAMMALS FAMOUS AMERICAN WOMEN CONE-BEARING TREES
Seal Dolly Madison
walrus Betsy Ross spruce
dolphin Susan B. Anthony pine
whale Eleanor Roosevelt cedar
A class is a group of items sharing one or more features, such as size, time-period, nationality, yield, product, place, color, or texture. The preceding classifications have two parts: the class name capitalized at the top of each column and the members listed below. The class name indicates the characteristics shared by the members of the class. Members of the class Aquatic Mammals, for instance, have place (water} and class of animal (mammal) in common. Members of the class Famous American Women share fame, nationality, and gender. Members of the class Cone-Bearing Trees are all trees that have yield in common; they all produce cones.
You can add new members to a given class only if these members share the common features of the class. For example, you could add larch, piсon, or sequoia to the class Cone-Bearing Trees, but you could not add maple or oak.
Most groups of items can be classified in a number of different ways. For instance, you can sort a stamp collection by country, by century, or even by type of picture, such as flowers or fish. You can organize books according to author, title, or subject matter.
Effective classification, like good writing, requires precision and accuracy. A classification is precise when the class name defines and also limits the features shared by its members. The class name should be as specific as it can be, given the members in the class. Aquatic Mammals, for instance, is precise because it defines the general subject (mammals), and it also limits the topic to the specific category (water mammals). If the class name were changed to Mammals, it might be too general to be useful; it would include all the world’s mammals. If the class name were changed to Small Beaked-and-Finned Torpedo-Shaped Aquatic Mammals, it would be too narrow. Only dolphins would belong in the class. Such a narrow classification becomes a definition, describing the unique characteristics of one member, rather than the common characteristics of a group.
A classification is accurate when all the class members have certain common features. The class Famous American Women, for instance, is accurate because all the women in the grouping are famous Americans. If you included Madame Curie, however, the classification would be inaccurate because she was French.
Assignment 1. For each of the following classifications, select the most precise class name and write the letter on your paper. Use reference books if necessary.
SAMPLE dictionary, atlas, encyclopedia, almanac, thesaurus
a. Books b. Reference books c. Library books
ANSWER b.
1. cashew, walnut, pecan, Brazil
a. Trees b. Edible-Nut Trees c. South American Nut Trees
2. duck, swan, goose, pelican, kingfisher
a. Animals b. Birds c. Aquatic Birds
3. geology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology
a. Areas of Knowledge b. Sciences c. Earth Sciences
4. Monet, Goya, Turner, Gauguin
a. European Painters b. European Artists c. Artists
5. scissors, wire cutter, hedge trimmer, lawn mower, saw
a. Metal Objects b. Tools c. Cutting Tools
6. frog, fish, chameleon, turtle, hamster
a. Pets b. Small Pets c. Small Water Pets
Main Idea and Relevant Detail
Classifying is helpful for understanding paragraph development and organization. A paragraph, like a classification, has two parts—a main idea and details. The main idea, like a class name, defines and limits the topic; it should be precise. The main idea is stated in a topic sentence that can be anywhere in a paragraph. The relevant details of a paragraph are facts and examples that describe, explain, or prove the main idea.
Irrelevant details do not belong with the topic because they draw attention away from the main idea and thereby distract, mislead, or embarrass the reader. They are comparable to inaccurate class members.
Read the paragraph that follows and identify the main idea. Then identify the two irrelevant details.
Slavery flourished in Rome Roman Republic Rome Gaul added thousands of other captives to the Roman slave markets. In 73 B.C., the slave Spartacus proclaimed a war to free slaves in Italy Italy
The main idea of the paragraph is that slavery, which included captives of war and impoverished farmers, thrived in ancient Rome Rome
Relationships in Classification
Classifying can also help you recognize a variety of specific relationships between members in a classification or between ideas in a paragraph. Here are some examples of these relationships: fact/opinion, whole/part, relevant/irrelevant, and cause/effect. These classifications illustrate cause/effect relationships.
EFFECTS OF STUDYING CAUSES OF SUCCESS
knowledge hard work
confidence intelligence
better grades luck
A cause-and-effect relationship shows how one or more events bring about a situation. The cause is the reason for the situation, and the effect is the result—the situation itself. A classification may group single or multiple causes and effects. Read the following paragraph about the effects of the Thirty Years’ War in Europe .
Although the Thirty Years’ War caused few territorial changes, it affected the European balance of power in several ways. The Hapsburgs, as Holy Roman Emperors, had failed in their attempts to impose Catholicism and to unite the German states. The war thus ended the medieval dream of a Europe fully united under the Holy Roman Emperor and faithful to the Roman Catholic Church. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) left the German princes free to rule their own states and to choose their own religion. Although the German people did not have this choice, the treaties promised them the right to emigrate if they wished. With the loss of Hapsburg power, France was the leading state in Western Europe . Spain finally recognized the independence of the United Netherlands, while Switzerland , also Protestant, became independent of the Holy Roman Empire . In three short decades, this war caused profound changes in the seventeenth-century European balance of power.
Analogies
Recognizing relationships is important to the thinking process. You can develop your ability to recognize various relationships by analyzing analogies. An analogy is a statement that defines the relationship between two pairs of words.
When you classify, as you know, you compare members of a class to make sure that they share a common feature or features. Similarly, in an analogy, you make several comparisons to analyze the relationship.
Look at this example.
Big is to large as small is to little.
Compare the first pair of words, big and large; they are synonyms and words for size. Then compare the second pair of words, small and little.; they are also synonyms and words for size. The analogy is correct because both pairs share the same relationship. If the second pair of words were “funny” and “humorous,” however, the analogy would be incorrect because “funny” and “humorous” are not words for size, albeit they are synonyms.
Analogies are often written in a shorthand form like this:
BIG : LARGE :: small : little
Just as you find many kinds of relationships in classification, you also find many types of analogies. Here are some different types of analogy relationships.
TYPE OF ANALOGY EXAMPLE
whole : part PLAY : ACT :: novel : chapter
category : example SHIP : YACHT :: car : limousine
class : member MAMMAL : WHALE :: tree : sequoia
worker : tool LUMBERJACK : SAW :: chef : knife
worker : product MILLINER : HAT :: cobbler : shoe
substance : product LEATHER : COAT :: cotton : jacket
item : purpose PEN : WRITING :: glue : binding
cause : effect COWARDICE : SHAME :: bravery : pride
word : synonym HURT : STING :: fail : flop
word : antonym FREEDOM : SLAVERY :: pride : shame
Analyzing analogies requires the same precision that you use in classifying. When you analyze the relationship between the first pair of words in an analogy, be as specific as possible. For instance, look closely at the second type of analogy—category : example. “Ship” is a category of floating vehicles, and “yacht” is a member of that category, specifically a luxury ship. Similarly, “car” is a category of land vehicles, and “limousine” is an example of that category. A limousine, like a yacht, is a luxury vehicle. Therefore, “limousine” is a more precise choice than “taxi,” “bus,” or “van.”
The analogy for substance : product also illustrates the importance of precision. “Leather” is a substance, and “coat” is a product, specifically an outer garment worn over clothing. Similarly, “cotton” is a substance, and “jacket” is a product. “Jacket” is more precise than “skirt” or “shirt” because a jacket, like a coat, is an outer garment worn over clothing.
Consistency is also necessary when you analyze analogies. If the first pair in an analogy is noun : noun, the second pair must also be noun : noun. If the first pair is noun : verb, the second pair must also be noun : verb. For example, the analogy COMPUTER : CALCULATING :: microscope : magnify is incorrect because the first pair is noun : participle, but the second pair is noun : verb.
Order must also be consistent in analogies. If the first pair in an analogy is whole : part, then the second pair must also be whole : part. For example, the analogy STRING : VIOLIN :: trumpet : wind is incorrect because the order of the first pair is whole : part, but the order of the second pair is part : whole.
Assignment 2. Study the first pair of words in the following analogies. On your paper, write the best word to complete the second pair. Check for precision and consistency. Next to your answer, identify each kind of analogy.
SAMPLE SALESCLERK : STORE :: reporter : .....
a) television b) news c) notebook d) newsroom e) paper
ANSWER newsroom; worker : place
1. ACROBAT : CIRCUS :: pediatrician : .....
a) doctor b) babies c) medicine d) hospital e) shots
2. DENTIST : TEETH :: ophthalmologist : .....
a) glasses b) ears c) lens d) cornea e) eyes
3. AIRPORT : RUNWAY :: train station : .....
a) tracks b) engine c) engineer d) train e) signal
4. PRIDE : LION :: school : .....
a) children b) dog c) fish d) books e) learning
5. COWPOKE : BRONCO :: matador : .....
a) picador b) bull c) Spain
6. WHEAT : FLOUR :: tree : .....
a) lumber b) table c) paper d) leaf e) nut
7. SEISMOLOGIST : EARTHQUAKE :: meteorologist : .....
a) storms b) wind c) news d) radar e) clouds
8. BANK : RIVER :: shore : .....
a) water b) ocean c) sand d) shells e) waves
9. PROMISE : CONTRACT :: request : .....
a) suggestion b) wish c) beg d) petition e) mooch
10. PIRATE : GOLD :: plagiarist : .....
a) books b) letters c) words d) writers e) magazines
Assignment 3. On your paper, write the letter of the word pair that expresses the same relationship as the capitalized word pair.
SAMPLE HOE : GARDENER::
a) cow : farmer b) carpenter : level c) shovel : plow d) song : chorus e) wrench : mechanic
ANSWER e)
1. FURNACE : HEAT::
a) fan : blasts b) refrigerator : cold c) car : speed d) stove : food e) cleaning : vacuum
2. APPETIZER : DESSERT::
a) A : Z b) facts : specifics c) furry : jagged d) sky : mountains e) floor : ceiling
3. SHIRT : CLOTH::
a) wood : desk b) boat : sailing c) coat : parka d) shoe : leather e) warmth : heat
4. PECAN : NUT::
a) soup : tomato b) peach : fruit c) bumblebee : bird d) drawer : desk e) cheese : cheddar
5. FEIGN : PRETEND::
a) oppose : arrange b) hope : promise c) attack : stab d) exceed : limit e) yell : shout
6. LAWN MOWER : GRASS::
a) patio : summer b) cloth : scissors c) cutlass : pirates d) knife : slicing e) scissors : hair
7. GOLD : SILVER::
a) spoon : utensil b) guitar : amplifier c) opal : garnet d) paper : match e) wagon : wheel
8. LAUGH : AMUSEMENT::
a) irritation : frown b) yawn : boredom c) face : emotions d) anger : joy e) nervous : jumpy
9. HELMET : HEAD::
a) necklace : neck b) socks : feet c) thimble : finger d) belt : waist e) bracelet : wrist
10. WORDS : LANGUAGE::
a) inspiration : books b) nails : hammer c) building : bricks d) chain : necklace e) notes : music
Assignment 4. On your paper, write the letter of the best word to complete the second pair. Check for precision and consistency. Then, identify the type of analogy.
SAMPLE CHAIR : THRONE :: hat : .....
a) derby b) plum c) staff d) head e) crown
ANSWER e); class : member
1. PICNIC : FEAST :: square dance : .....
a) hop b) sociable c) ball d) jig e) waltz
2. TREE : BARK :: apple : .....
a) seed b) skin c) core d) branch e) sauce
3. HOUSE : FLOOR :: ship : .....
a) galley b) rigging c) deck d) mast e) ballast
4. SCULPTOR : CHISEL :: painter : .....
a) brush b) oils c) color d) spectrum e) palette
5. POD : WHALE :: pack : .....
a) wolf b) clothes c) shark d) suitcase e) passenger
6. SNOOP : NOSEY :: ignore : .....
a) absent b) attentive c) curious d) kind e) neglectful
7. BOOTS : MOCCASINS :: parka : .....
a) shirt b) dress c) hood d) scarf e) jacket
8. DISOBEDIENCE : REVOLT :: defeat : .....
a) fight b) enemy c) army d) rout e) victory
9. SYMPHONY : MOVEMENT :: novel : .....
a) sitting b) paper c) chapter d) silence e) writing
10. EDUCATION : OPPORTUNITY :: comedy : .....
a) satire b) pleasure c) jokes d) tragedy e) clown
Assignment 5. In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. CLASP : BRACELET::
a) hook : coat b) buckle : belt c) diamond : ring d) wrist : watch e) cuff : trousers
2. SEDAN
a) hangar : airplane b) bedspread : bed c) rocker : chair d) rung : ladder e) marble : statue
3. CIRCUITOUS : ROUTE::
a) problematic : solution b) devious : argument c) elliptical : brevity d) judicious : selection e) profound : depth
4. PARDON : OFFENSE::
a) repent : sin b) detect : violation c) arraign : indictment d) forgive : wrong e) surrender : fugitive
5. NONPLUSSED : BAFFLEMENT::
a) discomfited : embarrassment b) parsimonious : extravagance c) disgruntled : contentment d) despicable : contempt e) surly : harassment
6. GULLY : CANYON::
a) eagle : bird b) cliff : granite c) pebble : boulder d) detour : road e) shore : lake
7. HELPFUL : OFFICIOUS::
a) dutiful : assiduous b) effusive : gushing c) gullible : incredulous d) enigmatic : dumbfounded e) deferential : sycophantic
8. BRONZE : PATINA::
a) wood : veneer b) plaque : honor c) mold : yeast d) iron : rust e) lead : tin
9. MELLIFLUOUS : CACOPHONY::
a) dulcet : euphony b) compliant : obsequiousness c) fragrant : noisesomeness d) florid : embellishment e) thrifty : parsimony
Answer Key: 1. b 2. c 3. b 4. d 5. a 6. c 7. e 8. d 9. c
Assignment 6. In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. PROLOGUE : PLAY::
a) chapter : novel b) overture : opera c) intermezzo : symphony d) epilogue : oration e) gesture : pantomime
2. SERRATIONS : SAW::
a) incisions : scalpel b) butchery : cleaver c) mortar : trowel d) cogs : gear e) division : ruler
3. SPIKE : SLEDGE::
a) runner : sleigh b) pole : ski c) nail : hammer d) clip : paper e) trestle : train
4. THIRST : DRIVE::
a) inebriety : excess b) success : ambition c) indifference : passion d) taste : gusto e) smell : sense
5. EPHEMERAL : PERMANENCE::
a) erratic : predictability b) immaculate : cleanliness c) commendable : reputation d) spurious : emulation e) mandatory : obedience
6. CHAFF : WHEAT::
a) mote : dust b) gold : lead c) dregs : wine d) loaf : bread e) yolk : egg
7. OGLE : OBSERVE::
a) haggle : outbid b) clamor : dispute c) discern : perceive d) flaunt : display e) glare : glower
8. ABSTEMIOUS : ABSTINENCE::
a) irascible : militancy b) gregarious : reticence c) truculent : dogmatism d) comatose : sobriety e) pusillanimous : cravenness
9. INELUCTABLE : AVOID::
a) ineffable : utter b) impalpable : desire c) impermeable : endure d) irascible : provoke e) irreconcilable : estrange
Answer Key: 1. b 2. d 3. c 4. e 5. a 6. c 7. d 8. e 9. a
Analogies come from a wide variety of fields. You need to know that musicians study in conservatories and ministers in seminaries, that panegyrics praise and elegies lament. You need to be aware of catalysts and conundrums, augers and auguries, and know in which contexts these words are found. You are not, however, dealing with these words in isolation; you are always dealing with them in relationship to other words.
Once you have analyzed analogy questions, you will find that they fall into certain patterns. You should be able to answer them reasonably rapidly.
First, you have the two capitalized words linked by a symbol. Take a look at a few examples.
FRESCO : WALL
A fresco is related to a wall. How? A fresco or mural painting is painted on a wall.
STAMMER : TALK
Stammer is related to talk. How? To stammer is to make involuntary stops or repetitions when talking. It is to talk in a halting manner.
TILE : MOSAIC
Tile is related to mosaic. How? A mosaic is made up of tiles. Notice the wording of the last sentence. You could also have said “Tiles are the pieces that make up a mosaic” and maintained the word order of the analogy. Sometimes, however, it is easier to express a relationship if you reverse the order of the words.
Next you come to the five answer choices. See if you can tell which pair best expresses a relationship similar to the relationship of tile to mosaic.
TILE : MOSAIC::
a) hoop : embroidery b) wick : candle c) whalebone : scrimshaw d) easel : painting e) knot : macramй
The correct answer is choice e): macramй is made up of knots. Just as the tiles in a mosaic make a pattern, so too the knots in a piece of macramй make a pattern.
Some of the analogy questions on the SAT and GRE are as clear-cut as this. Others are more complex. To answer them correctly involves far more than knowing single meanings of individual words: it involves knowing the usual contexts in which they are found, and their connotations as well. Master tactics that immediately follow. Then proceed to the practice exercises containing both relatively simple and challenging analogies at the chapter’s end.
Tactic 1: Before you look at the choices, try to state the relationship between the capitalized words in a clear sentence.
In answering an analogy question, you first problem is to determine the exact relationship between the two capitalized words. Before you look at the answer pairs, make up a sentence that illustrates how these capitalized words are related. The test the possible answers by seeing how well they fit in your sentence.
DELUGE : DROPLET::
a) beach : wave b) desert : oasis c) blizzard : icicle d) landslide : pebble d) cloudburst : puddle
A deluge (drenching rain or flood) is made up of droplets. A landslide or fall of rocks is made up of pebbles. Choice d) is correct.
Don’t let choice e) fool you: while a cloudburst, like a deluge, is a drenching rain, it is not made up of puddles; rather, it leaves puddles in its aftermath.
PHILATELIST : STAMPS::
a) numismatist : coins b) astrologer : predictions c) geneticist : chromosomes d) cartographer : maps e) pawnbroker : jewelry
A philatelist collects stamps. A numismatist collects coins. Choice a) is correct.
Note how difficult this question would be if you did not know that a philatelist is a stamp collector. You might have guessed that a philatelist primarily studies stamps (as, for example, a geneticist studies chromosomes) or even makes stamps (as a cartographer makes maps). Knowing the primary relationship between the capitalized words, however, you can go through the answer choices eliminating any pairs that do not express the same relationship. Thus, you can eliminate choice b): an astrologer may possibly collect predictions; but his primary, dictionary-defined, role is to make predictions, to foretell human affairs by studying the positions of the stars. Similarly, you can eliminate choice e): a pawnbroker does not collect jewelry; he takes jewelry (and many other sorts of personal property) as a pledge to secure the repayment of money he lends. You can eliminate choice c) as well: a geneticist studies chromosomes. This process of elimination leaves you with two relatively unfamiliar words—numismatist and cartographer—and a 50 percent chance of guessing the answer correctly. If you are not sure of the answer, always rule out answer choices that you know cannot be correct, and then guess among the choices that are left.
Tactic 2: If more than one answer fits the relationship in your sentence, look for a narrower approach.
When you try to express the relationship between the two capitalized words in sentence form, occasionally you come up with too simple a sentence, one that fails to include enough details to particularize your analogy. In such cases, more than one answer may fit the relationship, and you will have to analyze the original pair again.
BOUQUET : FLOWERS::
a) forest : trees b) husk : corn c) mist : rain d) woodpile : logs e) drift : snow
“A bouquet is made up of flowers.” You have stated a relationship between the capitalized words in a sentence, but you have not stated a relationship that is precise enough. After all, forests are made up of trees, woodpiles are made up of logs, and even drifts are made of snow. You need to focus on some aspect of the relationship between the original pair of words that corresponds to an aspect of only one of the answer pairs. Go back to the original pair of words for more details. A bouquet is made up of flowers that have been picked and gathered into a bunch. In contrast, a forest is a tract of land covered with densely growing trees. A drift is a mass of snow driven together by the wind. Neither the relationship in choice a) nor that in choice e) exactly parallels the relationship between the word pair BOUQUET : FLOWERS. Choice d), however, is perfect: a woodpile is made up of logs that have been cut and gathered into a stack.
In answering analogy questions on the SAT and GRE, pay special attention to how a dictionary would define the words involved. Do not settle for what “may be” a good relationship. Precision is important in analogies: a bouquet is not simply made up of flowers, it is made up of flowers that have been cut. Strive to identify the relationship that exists “by definition.”
Tactic 3: Consider secondary meanings of words as well as their primary meanings.
Frequently, the test-makers attempt to mislead you by using familiar words in relatively uncommon ways. When an apparently familiar word seems incongruous in a particular analogy, consider other definitions of that word.
AMORPHOUSNESS : DEFINITION::
a) lassitude : energy b) spontaneity : awareness c) angularity : intricacy d) rectitude : drabness e) precision : uniformity
What relationship exists between amorphousness and definition? Amorphousness means formlessness or shapelessness; an amorphous idea lacks form or shape. But what does formlessness have to do with definition? After all, a definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase.
Look closely at the term “definition.” When you define a word, you distinguish its essential characteristics; you make its features clear. “Definition” in fact possesses a secondary meaning: “sharp demarcation of outlines or limits; distinctness of outline or detail.” With this meaning in mind, you can state the essential relationship between the capitalized words: amorphousness is a lack of definition. Analogously, lassitude (listlessness, weariness) is a lack of energy. The correct answer is choice a).
EMBROIDER : CLOTH::
a) chase : metal b) patch : quilt c) gild : gold d) carve : knife e) stain : glass
Ostensibly, this is a simple analogy. One embroiders cloth to ornament it, embellishing it with needlework. The relationship between the capitalized words is clear. However, only 9% of the examinees who answered this question answered it correctly. The problem lies not in the original analogy but in the answer pairs.
Consider the answer choices closely. Choices b), c), d), and e) are clear enough: one patches a quilt, either repairing it or putting it together (“patch” has both senses); one gilds something, overlaying it with gold; one carves with a knife; one stains glass, imparting color to it. Several of these straightforward choices have something to do with ornamentation, but none seems precisely right. But how does one chase metal? Certainly not the way one chases an ambulance! Among the straightforward answer choices, choice a) seems strangely out of place.
When an item in an analogy strikes you as out of place, take a second look. Remember that the test-makers usually place more difficult analogies toward the end of the analogy section. Therefore, if one of the final analogy questions in a set looks simple, suspect a trap. In this case, the trap is a double one. Choice b), patch : quilt, is an eye-catcher: because embroidery and quilt-making both are related to sewing, choice b) has an immediate appeal. Choose it and fall into the test-makers’ trap. Choice a), the odd-seeming choice, is the real answer: chase, as used here, means to ornament a metal surface, as silversmiths decorate silver with hammered patterns; chasing metal, thus, is directly analogous to embroidering cloth.
Tactic 4: Watch out for errors caused by eye-catchers.
When you look at answer choices, do you find that certain ones seem to leap right off the page? For instance, when you were looking for an analogy similar to EMBROIDER : CLOTH, did the terms related to stitchery catch your eye? these words are eye-catchers. They look good—but not if you take a second glance.
In an analogy you have two capitalized words that relate in a particular way. In creating eye-catchers, the test-makers tempt you with pairs of words that are related, but in a grammatically or logically different way.
PROCTOR : SUPERVISE::
a) prophet : rule b) profiteer : consume c) profligate : demand d) prodigal : squander e) prodigy : wonder
Just as there are many possible relationships linking word pairs, there are many possible ways an eye-catcher may attract your eye. First, an answer choice may somehow remind you in subject matter of one or both of the terms in the original pair. Thus, choice a) is an eye-catcher: “rule” reminds you of “supervise”; both words feel as if they belong in the same set of words, the same semantic field. Second, the answer choice may masquerade as a clear-cut, precise, dictionary-perfect analogy and yet not be one. Thus, choice e) is an eye-catcher: while there is a clear relationship between the nouns “prodigy” and “wonder,” there is no such clear relationship between the noun “prodigy” and the verb “wonder.” See how this works:
CLEAR ANALOGY
Noun/Noun: A prodigy (marvel) is a wonder.
VAGUE ANALOGY
Noun/Verb: A prodigy wonders (ponders; marvels).
A prodigy excites wonders in others; he is not necessarily astonished or full of wonder himself. The relationship is vague. Eliminate vague analogies when you find them; their only function is to catch your eye.
You have ruled out choice e); you are suspicious of choice a). How do you determine the correct answer? In this case, ask yourself who is doing what to whom. A proctor (monitor) by definition supervises students or examinees. You can eliminate choices a), b), and c) because no necessary relationship links the words in these pairs. Prophets prophesy; they do not rule. Profiteers sell goods (at excessive prices) that others consume. Profligates waste their fortunes; they do not necessarily demand. The correct answer is choice d). Just as a proctor supervises students, a prodigal or wastrel squanders wealth.
Tactic 5: Look at the answer choices to determine a word’s part of speech.
Look at the capitalized words. What parts of speech are they? Words often have several forms. You may think of “run” as a verb, for example, but in the phrases “a run in her stocking” and “hit a home run” the word “run” is a noun.
American matriculation exams often play on this confusion in testing your verbal ability. When you look at a capitalized word, you may not know whether you are dealing with a noun, a verb, or an adjective. “Harbor,” for example, is a common noun; in “to harbor a fugitive,” in other words to give refuge to a runaway, it is a much less common verb.
If you suspect that a capitalized word may represent more than one part of speech, don’t worry. Grammatical information built into the question can help you recognize analogy types and spot the use of unfamiliar or secondary meanings of words. In most American tests, the relationship between the parts of speech of the capitalized word and the parts of speech of the answer choices is identical. If your capitalized words are a noun and a verb, each of your answer pairs will be a noun and a verb. If they are an adjective and a noun, each of your answer pairs will be an adjective and a noun. If you can recognize the parts of speech in a single answer pair, you know the parts of speech of every other answer pair and of the original pair as well.
FLAG : VIGOR::
a) endure : courage b) tire : monotony c) question : perception d) waver : resolution e) flatter : charm
At first glance, you might think that both “flag” and “vigor” were nouns; “flag,” after all, is a common noun, and “vigor” ends in -or, a common noun suffix. However, “endure” is clearly a verb. Simply from looking at the first answer choice, you know “flag” is a verb, not a noun.
What occurs when someone or something flags? Think of an American flag when the breeze dies down. The banner hangs limp; it droops. In a word, the flag flags. By extension, the verb “flag” has come to mean “to slacken” or “to decline”; when vigor flags, it becomes less firm. Only one answer choice conveys this sense of something firm weakening: choice d). If one’s resolution wavers, it declines.
Tactic 6: Familiarize yourself with common analogy types.
Analogies tend to fall into certain basic types. If you can discover no apparent relationship between the two capitalized words, try to establish a relationship between them based on those types commonly used in modern American English.
Common Analogy Types
Definition
REFUGE : SHELTER
A refuge (place of asylum) by definition shelters.
TAXONOMIST : CLASSIFY
A taxonomist, a person who specializes in classification, by definition classifies.
HAGGLER : BARGAIN
A haggler, a person who argues over prices, by definition bargains.
Defining Characteristic
TIGER : CARNIVOROUS
A tiger is defined as a carnivorous or meat-eating animal.
ENTOMOLOGIST : INSECTS
An entomologist is defined as a person who studies insects.
APIARY : BEE
An apiary is defined as a home for bees.
Class and Member
AMPHIBIAN : SALAMANDER
A salamander is an example of an amphibian.
METAPHYSICS : PHILOSOPHY
Metaphysics belongs to the field of philosophy.
SONNET : POEM
A sonnet is a specific kind of poem.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning. Both words belong to the same part of speech.
CONCERNED : INDIFFERENT
Indifferent means unconcerned.
WAX : WANE
Wax, to grow larger, and wane, to dwindle, are opposites.
ANARCHY : ORDER
Anarchy is the opposite of order.
Antonym Variants
In an Antonym Variant, the words are not strictly antonyms; their meanings, however, are opposed. Take the adjective “nervous.” A strict antonym for the adjective “nervous” would be the adjective “poised.” However, where an Antonym would have the adjective “poised,” and Antonym Variant analogy has the noun “poise.” It looks like this:
NERVOUS : POISE
Nervous means lacking in poise.
INIQUITOUS : VIRTUE
Something iniquitous lacks virtue. It is the opposite of virtuous.
ABSTINENT : GORGE
Abstinent or sparing in eating means not inclined to cram or gorge.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have the same meaning. Both words belong to the same part of speech.
MAGNIFICENT : GRANDIOSE
Grandiose means magnificent.
RATIOCINATE : THINK
To ratiocinate is to think.
RECIDIVIST : BACKSLIDER
A recidivist or habitual offender is a backslider.
Synonym Variants
In a Synonym Variant, the words are not strictly synonymous; their meanings, however, are similar. Take the adjective “willful.” A strict synonym for the adjective “willful” would be the adjective “unruly.” However, where a Synonym would have the adjective “unruly,” a Synonym Variant analogy has the noun “unruliness.” It looks like this:
WILLFUL : UNRULINESS
Willful means exhibiting unruliness.
VERBOSE : WORDINESS
Someone verbose is wordy; he or she exhibits wordiness.
SOLICITOUS : CONCERN
Someone solicitous is concerned; he or she shows concern.
Degree of Intensity
FOND : DOTING
Fond is less extreme than doting.
FLURRY : BLIZZARD
A flurry or shower of snow is less extreme than a blizzard.
GRASPING : RAPACIOUS
To be grasping is less extreme than to be rapacious.
Part of Whole
ISLAND : ARCHIPELAGO
Many islands make up an archipelago.
SHARD : POTTERY
A shard is a fragment of pottery.
CANTO : POEM
A canto is part of a poem.
Function
ASYLUM : REFUGE
An asylum provides refuge or protection.
BALLAST : STABILITY
Ballast provides stability.
LULL : STORM
A lull temporarily interrupts a storm.
Manner
MUMBLE : SPEAK
To mumble is to speak indistinctly.
STRUT : WALK
To strut is to walk proudly.
STRAINED : WIT
Wit that is strained is forced in manner.
Action and Its Significance
WINCE : PAIN
A wince is a sign that one feels pain.
BLUSH : DISCOMFITURE
A blush signifies discomfiture or embarrassment.
PROSTRATION : SUBMISSIVENESS
Prostration (assuming a prostrate position, face to the ground) is a sign of submissiveness or abasement.
Worker and Article Created
POET : SONNET
A poet creates a sonnet.
ARCHITECT : BLUEPRINT
An architect designs a blueprint.
MASON : WALL
A mason builds a wall.
Worker and Tool
PAINTER : BRUSH
A painter uses a brush.
SICKLE : REAPER
A reaper uses a sickle to cut the grain.
CARPENTER : VISE
A carpenter uses a vise to hold the object being worked on.
Worker and Action
ACROBAT : CARTWHEEL
An acrobat performs a cartwheel.
FINANCIER : INVEST
A financier invests.
TENOR : ARIA
A tenor sings an aria.
Worker and Workplace
MUSICIAN : CONSERVATORY
A musician studies at a conservatory.
SCULPTOR : ATELIER
A sculptor works in an atelier or studio.
MINER : QUARRY
A miner works in a quarry or pit.
Tool and Its Action
DRILL : BORE
A drill is a tool used to bore holes.
CROWBAR : PRY
A crowbar is a tool to pry things apart.
SIEVE : SIFT
A sieve is a tool used to strain or sift.
Cause and Effect
SOPORIFIC : SLEEPINESS
A soporific causes sleepiness.
Sex
DOE : STAG
A doe is a female deer; a stag, a male deer.
Age
COLT : STALLION
A colt is a young stallion.
Time Sequence
CORONATION : REIGN
The coronation precedes the reign.
Spatial Sequence
ROOF : FOUNDATION
The roof is the highest point of a house; the foundation, the lowest point.
Symbol and Quality It Represents
DOVE : PEACE
A dove is the symbol of peace.
Practice Exercises
Analogy Exercise A
Directions: In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. MASON : WALL::
a) artist : easel b) fisherman : trout c) author : book d) congressman : senator e) sculptor : mallet
2. FIRE : ASHES::
a) accident : delay b) wood : splinters c) water : waves d) regret : melancholy e) event : memories
3. GOOSE : GANDER
a) duck : drake b) hen : chicken c) sheep : flock d) dog : kennel e) horse : bridle
4. CARPENTER : SAW::
a) stenographer : typewriter b) painter : brush c) lawyer : brief d) seamstress : scissors e) runner : sneakers
5. CAPTAIN : SHOAL::
a) lawyer : litigation b) pilot : radar c) soldier : ambush d) doctor : hospital e) corporal : sergeant
6. HORNS : BULL::
a) mane : lion b) wattles : turkey c) antlers : stag d) hoofs : horse e) wings : eagle
7. JUDGE : COURTHOUSE::
a) carpenter : bench b) lawyer : brief c) architect : blueprint d) physician : infirmary e) landlord : studio
8. HELMET : HEAD::
a) pedal : foot b) gun : hand c) breastplate : chest d) pendant : neck e) knapsack : back
9. GULLIBLE : DUPED::
a) credible : cheated b) careful : cautioned c) malleable : molded d) myopic : misled e) articulate : silenced
10. DUNGEON : CONFINEMENT::
a) church : chapel b) school : truancy c) asylum : refuge d) hospital : mercy e) courthouse : remorse
11. HERMIT : GREGARIOUS::
a) miser : penurious b) ascetic : hedonistic c) coward : pusillanimous d) scholar : literate e) crab : crustacean
12. MENDACITY : HONESTY::
a) courage : cravenness b) truth : beauty c) courage : fortitude d) unsophistication : ingenuousness e) turpitude : depravity
13. MARATHON : STAMINA::
a) relay : independence b) hurdle : perseverance c) sprint : celerity d) jog : weariness e) ramble : directness
14. NAIVE : INGENUE::
a) ordinary : genius b) venerable : celebrity c) urbane : sophisticate d) crafty : artisan e) modest : braggart
15. RETOUCH : PHOTOGRAPH::
a) hang : painting b) finger : fabric c) retract : statement d) compose : melody e) refine : style
16. INDIGENT : WEALTH::
a) contented : happiness b) aristocratic : stature c) smug : complacency d) emaciated : nourishment e) variegated : variety
17. SHALE : GEOLOGIST::
a) catacombs : entomologist b) aster : botanist c) obelisk : fireman d) love : philologist e) reef : astrologer
18. DIDACTIC : TEACH::
a) sophomoric : learn b) satiric : mock c) reticent : complain d) chaotic : rule e) apologetic : deny
19. HACKNEYED : ORIGINAL::
a) mature : juvenile b) trite : morbid c) withdrawn : reserved d) evasive : elusive e) derivative : traditional
20. AUGER : CARPENTER::
a) studio : sculptor b) awl : cobbler c) seam : seamstress d) cement : mason e) apron : chef
Analogy Exercise B
Directions: In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. MUSTER : CREW::
a) convene : committee b) demobilize : troops c) dominate : opposition d) cheer : team e) dismiss : jury
2. DWELL : DENIZEN::
a) shun : outcast b) inherit : heir c) squander : miser d) obey : autocrat e) patronize : protйgй
3. MEANDERING : DIRECTNESS::
a) menacing : ambition b) affable : permissiveness c) digressive : conciseness d) circuitous : rotation e) aboveboard : openness
4. CEMENT : TROWEL::
a) lawn : rake b) conflagration : match c) paint : brush d) floor : polish e) wallpaper : ladder
5. PIGHEADED : YIELD::
a) lionhearted : retreat b) lily-livered : flee c) dogged : pursue d) featherbrained : giggle e) eagle-eyed : discern
6. ALARM : TRIGGER::
a) prison : escape b) tunnel : dig c) criminal : corner d) fright : allay e) trap : spring
7. QUOTATION : QUOTATION MARKS::
a) remark : colon b) sentence : period c) aside : parentheses d) clause : semicolon e) interjection : exclamation point
8. SIGNATURE : ILLUSTRATION::
a) byline : column b) alias : charge c) credit : purchase d) note : scale e) reference : recommendation
9. SCALES : JUSTICE::
a) weights : measures b) laws : courts c) torch : liberty d) laurel : peace e) balance : equity
10. SURPRISE : EXCLAMATION::
a) insolence : bow b) dismay : groan c) happiness : grimace d) deference : nod e) contentment : mutter
11. APOSTATE : RELIGION::
a) potentate : kingdom b) traitor : country c) bureaucrat : government d) jailer : law e) teacher : education
12. FOX : CUNNING::
a) dog : playful b) hyena : amusing c) beaver : industrious d) vixen : cute e) colt : sturdy
13. PERJURY : OATH::
a) plagiarism : authority b) embezzlement : trust c) disrespect : age d) testimony : court e) jury : vow
14. EULOGY : BLAME::
a) elegy : loss b) satire : mockery c) tirade : abuse d) simile : likeness e) benediction : curse
15. PRIDE : LIONS::
a) gaggle : geese b) honor : thieves c) snarl : wolves d) arrogance : kings e) lair : bears
16. RANGE : MOUNTAINS::
a) atlas : maps b) plain : prairie c) string : beads d) novel : short stories e) sea : rivers
17. EXCESSIVE : MODERATION::
a) extensive : duration b) arbitrary : courage c) impulsive : reflection d) distinguished : reverence e) expensive : cost
18. DEADBEAT : PAY::
a) killjoy : lament b) spoilsport : refrain c) daredevil : risk d) diehard : quit e) turncoat : betray
19. MENDICANT : IMPECUNIOUS::
a) critic : quizzical b) complainer : petulant c) physician : noble d) liar : compulsive e) philanthropist : prodigal
20. SNICKER : DISRESPECT::
a) whimper : impatience b) chortle : glee c) frown : indifference d) sneer : detachment e) glower : cheerfulness
Analogy Exercise C
Directions: In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. MYTH : LEGENDARY::
a) sermon : lengthy b) anecdote : witty c) fable : didactic d) epic : comic e) allegory : obscure
2. TIRADE : ABUSIVE::
a) monologue : lengthy b) aphorism : boring c) prologue : conclusive d) encomium : laudatory e) critique : insolent
3. EXPEDITIOUS : SPEED::
a) astute : wisdom b) decorous : impropriety c) thoughtful : inanity d) haggard : sturdiness e) portable : frailty
4. ANNOTATE : TEXT::
a) enact : law b) prescribe : medication c) caption : photograph d) abridge : novel e) censor : film
5. DRUDGERY : IRKSOME::
a) encumbrance : burdensome b) journey : wearisome c) ambivalence : suspicious d) compliance : forced e) dissonance : harmonious
6. IMPROMPTU : REHEARSAL::
a) practiced : technique b) makeshift : whim c) offhand : premeditation d) glib : fluency e) numerical : calculation
7. ELISION : SYLLABLES::
a) contraction : letters b) thesis : ideas c) diagnosis : symptoms d) almanac : facts e) abacus : numbers
8. STICKLER : INSIST::
a) mumbler : enunciate b) trickster : risk c) haggler : concede d) laggard : outlast e) braggart : boast
9. DETRITUS : GLACIER::
a) thaw : snowfall b) snow : ice cap c) silt : river d) range : mountain e) foliage : tree
10. DESCRY : DISTANT::
a) mourn : lost b) whisper : muted c) discern : subtle d) destroy : flagrant e) entrap : hostile
11. HORSE : CORRAL::
a) oyster : reef b) dog : muzzle c) sheep : flock d) pig : sty e) deer : stag
12. RUBBER : ELASTIC::
a) paper : brittle b) diamond : hard c) satin : sheer d) metal : heavy e) dust : allergic
13. REAM : PAPER::
a) carton : milk b) statue : marble c) tablet : clay d) ink : pen e) cord : wood
14. HOBBLE : WALK::
a) gallop : run b) stammer : speak c) stumble : fall d) sniff : smell e) amble : stroll
15. DETECTIVE : INFORMER::
a) spy : counterspy b) reporter : source c) author : editor d) architect : draftsman e) sailor : mutineer
16. SCULPTOR : STONE::
a) essayist : words b) painter : turpentine c) composer : symphony d) logger : timber e) etcher : acid
17. MASTHEAD : NEWSPAPER::
a) footnote : essay b) credits : film c) spine : book d) ream : paper e) advertisement : magazine
18. FRAYED : FABRIC::
a) thawed : ice b) renovated : building c) frazzled : nerves d) watered : lawn e) cultivated : manner
19. INDOLENT : WORK::
a) decisive : act b) gullible : cheat c) perceptive : observe d) theatrical : perform e) taciturn : speak
20. INFALLIBLE : ERROR::
a) irreversible : cure b) invulnerable : emotion c) impeccable : flaw d) intolerable : defect e) immovable : choice
Analogy Exercise D
Directions: In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. INFRACTION : LAW::
a) interruption : continuity b) renovation : structure c) establishment : order d) enactment : amendment e) punishment : crime
2. LACHRYMOSE : TEARS::
a) effusive : requests b) ironic : jests c) morose : speeches d) profound : sighs e) verbose : words
3. MOISTEN : DRENCH::
a) enclose : confine b) prick : stab c) disregard : ignore d) scrub : polish e) heat : chill
4. WITCH : COVEN::
a) ogre : castle b) seer : prophecy c) actor : troupe d) fairy : spell e) doctor : medicine
5. CONTINENT : ISLAND ::
a) ocean : lake b) isthmus : peninsula c) cape : cove d) river : canal e) plateau : plain
6. SKINFLINT : STINGY::
a) daredevil : alert b) braggart : carefree c) blackguard : protective d) spendthrift : weak e) diehard : stubborn
7. STORY : BUILDING::
a) plot : outline b) rung : ladder c) cable : elevator d) foundation : skyscraper e) spire : church
8. CANONIZE : SAINT::
a) train : athlete b) guard : dignitary c) deify : sinner d) lionize : celebrity e) humanize : scholar
9. STARE : GLANCE::
a) participate : observe b) scorn : admire c) hunt : stalk d) gulp : sip e) confide : tell
10. PERFORATE : HOLES::
a) speckle : spots b) evaporate : perfume c) decorate : rooms d) filter : water e) repent : sins
11. PUGNACIOUS : BATTLE::
a) timorous : beg b) loquacious : drink c) tenacious : persist d) veracious : lie e) wicked : survive
12. CLEARSIGHTED : PERSPICACITY::
a) daring : temerity b) reserved : impulsiveness c) transparent : opacity d) severe : clemency e) lethargic : energy
13. PLEAD : SUPPLIANT::
a) disperse : rioter b) shun : outcast c) revere : elder d) beg : philanthropist e) translate : interpreter
14. EPIGRAM : PITHY::
a) allegory : lengthy b) saga : heroic c) anecdote : humorous d) elegy : satiric e) proverb : modern
15. BOLT : FABRIC::
a) lock : key b) book : paper c) roll : film d) needle : thread e) light : lamp
16. PROOF : ALCOHOL::
a) cream : milk b) canteen : water c) tanker : oil d) octane : gasoline e) pulp : juice
17. INCUBATOR : INFANT::
a) henhouse : chicken b) greenhouse : plant c) archives : document d) cooler : wine e) hive : bee
18. CITADEL : DEFENSE::
a) chapel : refreshment b) gazebo : refuge c) marina : contemplation d) warehouse : storage e) rampart : supervision
19. RANCID : TASTE::
a) tepid : temperature b) glossy : look c) rank : smell d) dulcet : sound e) savory : odor
20. TRYST : CLANDESTINE::
a) reverie : dreamy b) acquaintanceship : brief c) expectation : hopeless d) glance : resentful e) journey : leisurely
Analogy Exercise E
Directions: In each of the following questions, a related pair of words or phrases is followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases. Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1. WHISPER : SPEAK::
a) brush : touch b) skip : walk c) listen : hear d) request : ask e) whimper : whine
2. ELUSIVE : CAPTURE::
a) persuasive : convince b) elastic : stretch c) headstrong : control d) sensible : decide e) gullible : trick
3. LINEAGE : PERSON::
a) foliage : tree b) derivation : word c) adolescence : child d) title : book e) landscape : portrait
4. IMPANEL : JUROR::
a) accuse : defendant b) convict : culprit c) testify : witness d) enroll : student e) involve : bystander
5. PECCADILLO : TRIFLING::
a) pariah : popular b) diagnosis : accurate c) notion : farfetched d) squabble : petty e) pursuit : trivial
6. PHYSIQUE : STURDY::
a) intellect : noble b) punctuality : tardy c) investment : sound d) fabric : worn e) technique : inept
7. TRAILER : MOTION PICTURE::
a) truck : cargo b) theater : play c) edition : novel d) commercial : product e) libretto : opera
8. SIGN : ZODIAC::
a) poster : billboard b) letter : alphabet c) prediction : prophecy d) signal : beacon e) rhyme : almanac
9. LUMINARY : ILLUSTRIOUS::
a) zealot : intense b) miser : prodigal c) atheist : devout d) dignitary : conceited e) celebrity : wealthy
10. BUFFOON : DIGNITY::
a) braggart : modesty b) blackguard : strength c) laughingstock : ridicule d) impostor : identification e) gambler : risk
11. ROUT : DEFEAT::
a) ovation : applause b) triumph : failure c) grief : loss d) pathway : ruin e) memory : oblivion
12. METAPHOR : FIGURATIVE::
a) fable : contemporary b) adage : paradoxical c) precept : instructive d) irony : dramatic e) epic : literal
13. CALUMNY : ASPERSIONS::
a) approbation : praise b) slander : mockery c) approval : criticism d) expectation : threats e) satire : lamentations
14. LAST : SHOE::
a) cuff : trousers b) finale : curtain c) pattern : glove d) buckle : belt e) strap : slip
15. INDOLENT : SLOTH::
a) wrathful : ire b) arrogant : acuity c) covetous : enigma d) gluttonous : loyalty e) impatient : apathy
16. GROVEL : SERVILITY::
a) titter : arrogance b) fume : anger c) yawn : civility d) preen : modesty e) snivel : hypocrisy
17. DELICATE : FASTIDIOUS::
a) hard-working : diligent b) altruistic : mercenary c) demonstrative : effusive d) deceptive : fallacious e) blithe : melancholy
18. RICOCHET : BULLET::
a) soar : falcon b) aim : crossbow c) pierce : dart d) carom : ball e) catapult : missile
19. JUGGERNAUT : INEXORABLE::
a) cosmonaut : worldly b) colossus : gigantic c) demagogue : liberal d) philistine : cultivated e) despot : immaculate
20. APOCRYPHAL : AUTHENTICITY::
a) nefarious : wickedness b) dogmatic : assertiveness c) hypocritical : integrity d) perspicacious : discernment e) deceptive : artifice
Answer Key
Analogy Exercise A
1. c 6. c 11. b 16. d
2. e 7. d 12. a 17. b
3. a 8. c 13. c 18. b
4. d 9. c 14. c 19. a
5. c 10. c 15. e 20. b
Analogy Exercise B
1. a 6. e 11. b 16. c
2. b 7. c 12. c 17. c
3. c 8. a 13. b 18. d
4. c 9. c 14. e 19. b
5. a 10. b 15. a 20. b
Analogy Exercise C
1. c 6. c 11. d 16. a
2. d 7. a 12. b 17. b
3. a 8. e 13. e 18. c
4. c 9. c 14. b 19. e
5. a 10. c 15. b 20. c
Analogy Exercise D
1. a 6. e 11. c 16. d
2. e 7. b 12. a 17. b
3. b 8. d 13. e 18. d
4. c 9. d 14. b 19. c
5. a 10. a 15. c 20. a
Analogy Exercise E
1. a 6. c 11. a 16. b
2. c 7. d 12. c 17. c
3. b 8. b 13. a 18. d
4. d 9. a 14. c 19. b
5. d 10. a 15. a 20. c
How to Draw Conclusions
Another important kind of critical thinking is drawing conclusions. When you draw a conclusion, you carefully examine evidence in order to figure out an explanation. A valid conclusion is a reasonable and consistent explanation of the facts at hand. An invalid conclusion is an explanation that is inconsistent with the facts.
To draw a conclusion, look carefully at the evidence. Determine whether this information is accurate and reliable. Knowing whether your evidence is fact or opinion can help you to make this determination. A statement that you can prove by researching, observing, experimenting, calculating, or measuring is a fact. A statement that cannot be proved is an opinion. An opinion is a personal idea, thought, feeling, prediction, or judgment. Opinions are usually less reliable resources of evidence than facts.
Analyzing and Interpreting
The two basic steps in drawing a conclusion are analyzing and interpreting. Analyzing is a method of examining facts, details, or other evidence in order to get a better grasp of the whole. Interpreting is the process of explaining, or classifying, the significance of this information to yourself or to someone else. Asking questions is an effective way to analyze and interpret information. After you have analyzed and interpreted all the available facts and evidence, you are ready to draw a conclusion.
Analyzing gives you a foundation for interpreting and drawing a conclusion. For example, if you were looking for someone to teach you how to play the guitar, you would want to find an instructor who could meet your needs. To do this, you would need to examine the information available by asking questions such as these: What is the instructor’s experience? What is the fee for each lesson? What is the instructor’s teaching method? Ask someone you know for recommendations. Conduct interviews, and ask the instructor about his or her training and other related stuff. Then ask yourself what your reaction is to the instructor.
Interpreting the information that you gather involves asking additional questions: Which instructor has the best combination of experience, training, and style? Which instructor suits your price range or comes most highly recommended? What does the combination of high recommendation and low fee tell you? What does a particular combination of experience and training say about the instructor? Use the following strategies when you analyze and interpret.
Strategies
1. Examine whatever related information you can find. Review all facts and evidence, taking into account your previous knowledge and experience as well. Make sure this information is accurate.
2. Account for any missing information. Look for additional sources, such as authorities, books, experiments, or other kinds of research on the subject.
3. Consider only facts and supported opinions. Do not be swayed by unsupported opinions, advertisements, hunches, or any other unreliable evidence.
4. Ask questions. Ask yourself questions that begin with Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How in the manner of journalists.
Analysis and interpretation are especially helpful in reading literature. Read the excerpt from the beginning of a short story.
As she lay in her berth, staring at the shadows overhead, the rush of the wheels was in her brain, driving her deeper and deeper into circles of wakeful lucidity. The sleeping-car had sunk into its night-silence. Through the wet window-pane she watched the sudden lights, the long stretches of hurrying blackness. Now and then she turned her head and looked through the opening in the hangings at her husband’s curtains across the aisle...
She wondered restlessly if he wanted anything and if she could hear him if he called. His voice had grown very weak within the last months and it irritated him when she did not hear. This irritability, this increasing childish petulance seemed to give expression to their imperceptible estrangement. Like two faces looking at one another through a sheet of glass they were close together, almost touching, but they could not hear or feel each other: the conductivity between them was broken. She, at least, had this sense of separation, and she fancied sometimes that she saw it reflected in the look with which he supplemented his failing words... The suddenness of the change had found her so unprepared. A year ago their pulses had beat to one robust measure; both had the same prodigal confidence in an exhaustless future. Now their energies no longer kept step: hers still bounded ahead of life, pre-empting unclaimed regions of hope and activity, while his lagged behind, vainly struggling to overtake her.
Edith Newbold Jones Wharton (1862-1937)
from “A Journey”
To analyze the passage, ask such questions as these: Where does the story take place? What two characters are introduced in this excerpt? What time of day is it? What does the woman hear in the first paragraph? What does she see? What does she listen for in the second paragraph? How long has her husband been sick?
Then interpret by asking such questions as these: Why is the woman probably not sleeping? Why might she keep looking at her husband’s curtains across the aisle? What effect does the illness seem to have had on her husband’s temperament? How can you tell? How does she seem to feel about this change? How can you tell? What is the woman’s health like? How can you tell? What was their relationship probably like before his illness struck? How can you tell?
Thoughtful analysis and interpretation, based on story facts and details, illuminate character, plot, and theme. The information you glean from this process is crucial to understanding the meaning of a story and to extracting the author’s purpose.
Generalizations
One kind of conclusion is a generalization. A generalization is an idea, a statement, or a rule that can be applied to more than one case or situation. A generalization has no exceptions. Here are some examples of generalizations:
Rectangles always have four angles.
All fish have gills.
The sum of two even numbers is never an odd number.
Seeing or writing the words always, all, every, none, or no should command your critical-thinking attention. These words often signal a generalization. Before you make a generalization, be sure that you have considered enough cases. Otherwise you risk drawing a hasty generalization. Hasty generalizations occur when you rush to a conclusion instead of approaching it with caution.
Be careful when you make generalizations because they lead to stereotypes. A stereotype is a generalization about all members of a specific professional affiliation, race, ethnic group, religion, sex, or other group. Stereotypes may foster prejudice, intolerance, and injustice; therefore, they are dangerous. If you have any doubts about the validity of a generalization, use qualifying words such as some, many, most, often, few, seldom, or usually.
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