Situational Grammar

Linking Expressions

(Research paper by Rumen Dinev_at The University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia, Sept 2013)

Coherence (logical links) is sometimes called cohesion (linguistic links), even though some would claim that the two terms denote phenomena that are obviously related, but clearly different. We use coherence to cover both the extent to which a text hangs together, as it were, and the various linguistic and structural means of achieving this coherence.

In a coherent text, there are logical links between the words, sentences, and paragraphs of the text. The term comes from the Latin verb co-haerere, which means 'to stick together' (OED). Another way to describe coherence is to say that it has to do with good and smooth text flow. A writer must maximise understanding of a text by making it as clear and logical as possible.

Coherence can be achieved in a number of ways. Oshima & Hogue (2006) suggest the following four:

a)       Repeating key nouns

b)       Using consistent pronouns

c)       Using transition signals to link ideas

d)       Arranging your ideas in logical order

Starting with the last point, for the reason that it is a paramount aspect, any academic text will be incomprehensible unless the ideas expressed in it are arranged in some sort of logical fashion.

There are several different kinds of logical order, but some of the more frequently used are chronology, importance, and contrast. Chronology, firstly, has to do with time, and in terms of logic, events are ordered in a sequence. Secondly, importance means that ideas are discussed in a sequence which implies either a increasing or decreasing order of importance. Thirdly, contrast has to do with ordering ideas by contrasting or comparing them.

The last but one point - transition signals (sometimes called linking words or linking expressions) - has to do with the use of specific words and phrases that evoke links and transition between ideas.

As was emphasised above, there is no substitute for ordering the various ideas and parts of a text in a logical way. However, even when this is done in a satisfactory manner, there is often a need to strengthen the organisational pattern of a text passage by inserting logical markers.

There is a multitude of words and phrases like these, and they can be grouped in different classes based on the function they serve. The link below will take you to a list of different transitional and linking words.

a list of linking expressions/words for different purposes

Purpose/function		Connective words (linking words)
addition		and, also, moreover, in addition, furthermore, besides
contrast		but, however, in contrast, on the one hand…on the other hand,  the former…the latter, actually, nevertheless, while
similarity		such, similarly, the same, equally
exemplification		for example, for instance, in other words
chronology		first, second, then, afterwards, thereafter, meanwhile, at the  same time, next, later, finally, at last, ultimately
causality		so, consequently, therefore, thus, accordingly, although,  because of, hence, as a result, since
attitude		of course, naturally, obviously, fortunately, unfortunately,  certainly, admittedly
summary		to summarise, to sum up, in conclusion, in brief

The point called using consistent pronouns has to do with substituting nouns with pronouns in an effective way. A text that does not use pronouns to some extent will come across as overly repetitive. The important part when using pronouns is to be consistent by using the same person and number throughout the paragraph or text. Click on the link below to see a comparison between a text with and without pronouns.

The fourth way to achieve coherence in a text passage is to repeat key nouns. However, even if nouns typically are the words that should be repeated, also words from other word classes can be repeated if they are central to the topic of the text. There is no set rule as to how often a key noun can be repeated - the guiding principle must be clarity and an avoidance of making the reader feel that there is too much repetition.

An alternative to repeating a key noun over and over is to use another noun that has the same, or at least very similar, meaning: a synonym.

See Example Below

This paragraph comes from the opening of Stanislaw Lem's Memoirs Found in a Bathtub

The original				The Revised Draft
I couldn't seem to find the right room — none of them had the number designated on my pass. First, I wound up at the Department of Verification, then the Department of Misinformation, then some clerk from the Pressure Section advised me to try level eight, but on level eight they ignored me, and later I got stuck in a crowd of military personnel — the corridors rang with their vigorous marching back and forth, the slamming of doors, the clicking of heels, and over that martial noise, I could hear the distant music of bells, the tinkling of metals. Now and then janitors would go by with steaming percolators, now and then I would stumble into rest rooms where secretaries hastily renewed their make-up, now and then agents disguised as elevator men would strike up conversations — one of them had an artificial leg and he took me from floor to floor so many times that after a while he began waving to me from a distance and even stopped photographing me with the camera-carnation in his lapel. By noon we were buddies, and he showed me his pride and joy, a tape recorder under the elevator floor. But I was getting more and more depressed and couldn't share his enthusiasm.				*I couldn't seem to find the right room [the topic sentence: all other sentences in this paragraph support this idea of confusion and disorientation] — none of *them [pronoun referring to "room"] had the number designated on my pass. *First [enumeration], *I [pronoun] wound up at the Department of Verification, *then [enumeration & transition of addition] the Department of Misinformation, *then [enumeration & transition of addition] some clerk from the Pressure Section advised me to try level eight, *but [transition of contrast] on level eight they ignored me, *and [transition of addition] later *I [pronoun] got stuck in a crowd of military personnel — the corridors rang with *their [pronoun referring back to *military] vigorous *marching back and forth, the *slamming of doors, the *clicking of heels [parallelism], *and [transition of addition] over that martial noise, *I [pronoun] could hear the distant music of bells, the tinkling of metals. Now and then janitors *would go [setting up parallelism in the verb phrases] by with steaming percolators, *now and then [repetition] *I [pronoun] *would stumble [parallelism] into rest rooms where secretaries hastily renewed their make-up, *now and then [repetition] agents disguised as elevator men *would strike up [end of the parallelism in the verb phrases] conversations — *one of them [pronouns referring to "agents"] had an artificial leg *and [transition of addition] *he took *me [pronouns] from floor to floor so many times that after a while *he [pronoun] began waving to me from a distance and even stopped photographing me with the camera-carnation in his lapel. By noon *we were buddies, *and [transition of addition] *he [pronoun] showed *me his [pronouns] pride and joy, a tape recorder under the *elevator [repetition] floor. *But [transition of contrast] *I [pronoun] was getting more and more depressed and couldn't share *his [pronoun] enthusiasm.

Practice:

 linking expressions   


 Make one sentence from the two below, using the word(s) in brackets.

Example : It was raining.  We played golf. (even though) => Even though it was raining, we played golf.

1.        She wasn't very rich.  She gave money to the beggar. (although)              _________________________________________________________________________

2.        He left early.  He wanted to arrive on time. (so that)             ___________________________________________________________________________

3.        You can go out tonight.  You must tell us where you are going. (provided)              __________________________________________________________________________

4.        I don't earn a big salary.  But if I did, I wouldn't buy a car.  (even if)              __________________________________________________________________________

5.        Take a sandwich.  There might be no restaurant. (in case)              __________________________________________________________________________

6.        There was a lot of noise.  He managed to sleep. (despite)              __________________________________________________________________________

7.        Sue likes Opera.  Joe prefers jazz. (They have different tastes.)  (whereas)              __________________________________________________________________________

8.        The weather was bad.  They enjoyed the trip. (even though)              __________________________________________________________________________

9.        He had the 'flu.  He went to work. (in spite of)              __________________________________________________________________________

10.      You have to put the alarm on.  If not, it won't work. (unless)              __________________________________________________________________________

linking expressions   
(answers)   
 

1.        She wasn't very rich.  She gave money to the beggar. (although)                => Although she wasn't very rich, she gave money to the beggar.

2.        He left early.  He wanted to arrive on time. (so that)               =>  He left early so that he would arrive on time.

3.        You can go out tonight.  You must tell us where you are going. (provided)               => You can go out tonight provided you tell us where you are going.

4.        I don't early a big salary.  But if I did, I wouldn't buy a car. (even if)               =>Even if I earned a big salary I wouldn't buy a car.

5.        Take a sandwich.  There might be no restaurant. (in case)               => Take a sandwich in case there's no restaurant.

6.        There was a lot of noise.  He managed to sleep. (despite)               =>  Despite the noise, he managed to sleep.

7.        Sue likes Opera.  Joe prefers jazz. (whereas)               => Sue likes Opera whereas Joe prefers Jazz.

8.        The weather was bad.  They enjoyed the trip.  (even though)               => Even though the weather was bad  they enjoyed the trip.

9.        He had the 'flu.  He went to work. (in spite of)               => In spite of having the 'flu he went to work.

10.      You have to put the alarm on.  If not, it won't work. (unless)               => Unless you put the alarm on it won't work.